Liver – Functions

Master answer

This answer could be structured by splitting the content into major categories. These could be:

• the clearance functions of the liver
• first pass metabolism
• mechanisms of hepatic metabolism
• the effects of liver disease.

The role of the liver in drug clearance

• The role of the liver in pharmacokinetics is as an organ of clearance.
•  The two major determinants of hepatic clearance are the efficiency of drug removal from the blood and the efficiency of blood delivery to the liver.
• Efficiency of drug removal by the liver is described by the hepatic extraction ratio, which is the fraction of the drug entering the liver in the blood which is irreversibly removed (extracted) during one pass of the blood through the liver.
• The hepatic extraction ratio is determined largely by the free (unbound) fraction of the drug and by the intrinsic clearance rate, which is the intrinsic ability of the liver to remove (metabolise) the drug in absence of restrictions imposed on drug delivery to the liver cell by blood flow or protein binding.
• The effect of liver blood flow on hepatic clearance depends on the hepatic extraction ratio of the drug.
• With increasing hepatic blood flow, hepatic extraction ratio will decrease for all drugs.
• For drugs with low intrinsic clearance:
  • Hepatic extraction ratio will drop more rapidly with increasing hepatic blood flow
  • Hepatic clearance will not increase significantly with increasing blood flow
• For drugs with high intrinsic clearance:
  • Hepatic clearance will increase in a fairly linear fashion, in proportion to hepatic blood flow
  • Increasing the intrinsic clearance will have diminishing effect on total hepatic clearance 

The effect of the liver on first pass metabolism

• First pass clearance is not just hepatic but is a combination of metabolism by gut bacteria, metabolism by intestinal brush border enzymes, metabolism in the portal blood and metabolism by liver enzymes.
• For drugs with low hepatic extraction ratio:
  • First pass clearance will be low
  • Changes in hepatic enzyme function will have little effect on first pass clearance 
• For drugs with high hepatic extraction ratio:
  • First pass clearance will be high
  • Changes in hepatic enzyme function will have a significant effect on first pass clearance 

Biotransformation in the liver

By convention, the metabolic functions of the liver are divided into Phase I and Phase II reactions

• Phase I reactions:
  • Examples of Phase I reactions:
    • Hydrolysis
    • Reduction
    • Oxidation.
  • Characteristics of Phase I reactions:
    • these reactions expose or introduce a functional group (–OH, –NH2, – SH or –COOH)
    • They usually result in a small increase in hydrophilicity.
• Phase II reactions:
  • Examples of Phase II reactions:
    • Glucuronidation
    • Sulfation
    • Acetylation
    • Methylation
    • Conjugation with glutathione
    • Conjugation with amino acids eg. taurine, glutamine, glycine
  • Characteristics of Phase II reactions:
    • The products are supposed to be significantly more hydrophilic than the original substrate

Effects of changes in liver function

• The effects of changes in synthetic function
  • The liver synthesises plasma proteins; plasma protein binding influences the volume of distribution
  • Low plasma protein levels lead to raised free drug levels (the free fraction increases)
  • This process is therefore synergistic with the concurrent decrease in liver blood flow and hepatic extraction ratio
  • The liver synthesises plasma esterases and peptidases; these metabolise certain drugs
  • Significant liver disease can result in prolonged clearance of drugs which are susceptible to these enzymes (eg. suxamethonium)
• The effect of changes in secretory function
  • Drugs and metabolites which rely on biliary excretion will be retained, and may require dose adjustment
  • Drugs which enjoy enterohepatic recirculation may have decreased halflives due to failure of recirculation
  • High bilirubin levels may result in the displacement of drugs from albumin as it competes for binding sites 
  • Decreased secretion of bile may result in malabsorption 
• The effects of portal hypertension on pharmacokinetics
  • Portal venous hypertension leads to shunting of portal venous blood into the systemic circulation
  • This has the effect of decreasing first pass metabolism

JC 2019

Answer by JC